Delphinids: The Freshwater Dolphins of Brazil

Tucuxi

In this series so far, I have generally been referring to the Delphinidae as the "dolphin family". That's a literal translation of the name and serves to distinguish it from, say, the porpoise family. However, as I mentioned in the first post, not all animals commonly referred to as "dolphins" belong in the family. Thus, when zoologists want to distinguish the family from those other animals, but want to avoid saying "delphinids", the more common term is "Oceanic dolphins". Oceans are, after all, where they are found.

With, it turns out, one exception.

The tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis) is unique among Oceanic dolphins is being an exclusively freshwater animal. It lives in the Amazon River and its major tributaries, mostly in Brazil, but also further upstream into Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. Indeed, it was first formally described, by Paul Gervais in 1853, from an animal sighted in Peru, about 2,500 km (1,500 miles) from the mouth of the Amazon... and they are known to get further upriver than that, until they are stopped by features such as waterfalls.

Bast, Sekhmet, and the Egyptian Hyena-cats

Megistotherium, a Miocene hyena-cat

The majority of the land-based mammalian predators we are familiar with today belong to the order Carnivora. This is a diverse order, including such mammal families as the cats, bears, dogs, weasels, and seals. In fact, if we ignore the cetaceans and a few kinds of marsupial, they are the only large carnivorous mammals alive. But, as so often, this was not always the case, and they once shared the world with at least three other orders of predatory placental mammal (plus some marsupials far more fearsome than any Tasmanian devil). 

Two of these orders died out relatively early on, but one of them survived for much longer, producing multiple diverse species that lived across Eurasia, North America, and Africa. These were the hyaenodonts, named for Hyaenodon itself, first identified from a fossil all the way back in 1838. With so many species, they must have been successful in their day, but their numbers declined until the last two species died out in Africa and India around 9 million years ago, perhaps due to competition from the carnivorans, perhaps due to long-term climate change. Or, more likely, both.

I Ain't Afraid of No Owls

Northern bat

There is no particular reason why bats should be nocturnal. True, nocturnality has many advantages, but so does daytime activity; the real question is why so few bats fly during the day. I looked at this last year, where I mentioned that one of the main theories is that since birds evolved flight before bats did, the bats originally flew at night so that daytime predators, such as hawks and eagles, didn't try to eat them.

If so, it may be an effective strategy, since there isn't very much that eats bats on a regular basis. That isn't to say that there isn't anything, however. The bat hawk is, as its name implies, probably the single most specialised bat predator, but studies in Africa have shown that hobbies (which overwinter there), Wahlberg's eagles, and African goshawks also attack bats with some frequency, and they're probably not alone. In this part of the world, bats, as one might expect, take measures to reduce their risk of attack. Flying in large flocks may help, but it's also known, for example, that they avoid flying on moonlit nights, and, when they have to, they don't fly above the trees as they normally would, keeping themselves out of view.

Delphinids: Dolphins of the Deep Seas

Rough-toothed dolphin

To our human eyes, it's easy to distinguish the major habitat types on land. There are pine forests, tropical jungles, open prairies, deserts, mountains, and so on. When it comes to the sea, however, it's less obvious. Most maps show the sea as a solid mass of blue which is, of course, what most of it looks like from the surface. But there are different environments and habitats within it, even if they aren't necessarily arranged in quite the same way.

While for some dolphin species the only real limitation is pack ice preventing them from surfacing to breathe, most have more specific requirements. Temperature is the most obvious, with some species preferring tropical or subarctic seas, but the depth of the underlying water is also significant. Species such as common and bottlenose dolphins are most comfortable over the continental shelves, where nutrients well up from the sea bed to feed the fish and squid on which they prey. Rather more species prefer shallow waters, close to the coast. Here, the water is shallow enough for light to reach the bottom, allowing seaweed or coral to grow, which benefits a different kind of fish than those further out.

Sea Lions v. The Blob

The waters off the coast of Alaska are supposed to be cold, especially in winter. Yet, in the autumn of 2013, they cooled far less than they normally would. A great mass of warm water, 2,000 km (1,250 miles) across and around 100 metres (330 feet) deep, remained trapped in the North Pacific. Nicknamed 'The Blob', this was caused by the weather patterns over the region remaining stuck in a high-pressure mode, preventing the warm water from dissipating with the winds as it should do. With temperatures stuck at up to 4°C (7°F) warmer than normal, the high pressure did not dissipate for eight months.

When it did, tropical winds pushed the warm water up against the American coast, from southern Alaska to southern Mexico, where it basically sat until El Niño kicked off in 2015... and that kept things unusually warm for another year. Inland, this disrupted weather systems leading, among other things, to frequent thunderstorms that sparked what was (at the time) the worst wildfire season in California's history.

Oligocene (pt 15): Land of the Fire-Beasts

Pyrotherium

Even at the dawn of the Oligocene, South America had already long been isolated from the northern continents, giving it the opportunity to evolve its own distinct mammalian fauna, with many animals quite unlike those seen elsewhere. Most of these strange animals would die out millions of years later when the Isthmus of Panama finally formed. The armadillos are among the exceptions.

Armadillos first evolved on the continent during the previous epoch, if not earlier, but most of the older fossils are incomplete, making it difficult to trace their detailed relationships. The oldest reasonably complete armadillo skulls belong to Kuntinaru, first described in 2011. This lived in Bolivia towards the end of the Oligocene, around 27 million years ago and would already have looked much like modern armadillos, albeit somewhat smaller than the species most familiar to North Americans. 

Delphinids: Small Dolphins of Shallow Southern Seas

Commerson's dolphin

While related, dolphins and porpoises are regarded as distinct types of animals. Each is placed in its own family, with the two separating at least 15 million years ago. However, telling the two apart is not always easy, at least on a superficial look at their external anatomy. Porpoises are, generally speaking, smaller than dolphins and they have a blunt nose rather than a 'beak'. The problem is that we can say exactly the same about some species that really are dolphins.

In 1766, naturalist Philibert Commerson accompanied explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville on what would become the first successful French circumnavigation of the globe. While passing through the Straits of Magellan the following year, he spotted an unusual-looking dolphin close to the ship and sent a description of it back to France. (As a side note, later on in the voyage, it was discovered, much to the crew's shock, that Commerson's assistant was secretly a woman; she is now remembered as the first woman to circumnavigate the globe).